Bulletin board system (BBS) a computer accessible by telephone used like a
bulletin board to leave messages and files for other users.
Burglary I. By the narrowest and oldest definition: the trespassory breaking and
entering of the dwelling house of another in the night-time with the intent to commit a
felony. II. The unlawful entry of any fixed structure, vehicle or vessel used for regular
residence, industry or business, with or without force, with intent to commit a felony or
larceny.
Burglary (UCR) the unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a
theft.
Chicago School. See ecological theory.
Capital punishment the legal imposition of a sentence of death upon a
convicted offender. Another term for the death penalty.
Carjacking the stealing of a car while it is occupied.
Civil law that body of laws which regulates arrangements between individuals,
such as contracts and claims to property.
Classical School a criminological perspective operative in the late 1700s and
early 1800s which had its roots in the Enlightenment, and which held that men and women
are rational beings, that crime is the result of the exercise of free will, and that
punishment can be effective in reducing the incidence of crime since it negates the
pleasure to be derived from crime commission.
Clearance rate the proportion of reported or discovered crimes within a given
offense category which are solved.
Code of Hammurabi an early set of laws established by the Babylonian King
Hammurabi around the year 2000 B.C.
Cohort a group of individuals sharing certain significant social characteristics
in common, such as sex, time, and place of birth.
Cohort analysis a social scientific technique which studies a population
that shares common characteristics, over time. Cohort analysis usually begins at birth and
traces the development of cohort members until they reach a certain age.
Common law a body of unwritten judicial opinion originally based upon customary
social practices of Anglo-Saxon society during the Middle Ages.
Computer abuse any incident without color of right associated with computer
technology in which a victim suffered or could have suffered loss and/or a perpetrator by
intention made or could have made gain.
Computer bulletin board see bulletin board system (BBS).
Computer crime any violation of a computer crime statute.
Computer-related crime any illegal act for which knowledge of computer
technology is involved for its investigation, perpetration, or prosecution.
Computer virus a set of computer instructions that propagates copies or versions
of itself into computer programs or data when it is executed.
Conditioning a psychological principle which holds that the frequency of any
behavior can be increased or decreased through reward, punishment, and/or association with
other stimuli.
Conduct norms the shared expectations of a social group relative to personal
conduct.
Confidentiality. See data confidentiality.
Conflict perspective an analytical perspective on social organization which
holds that conflict is a fundamental aspect of social life itself and can never be fully
resolved.
Confounding effects rival explanations, also called competing hypotheses, which
are threats to the internal or external validity of any research design.
Consensus model an analytical perspective on social organization which holds
that most members of society agree as to what is right and what is wrong, and that the
various elements of society work together in unison toward a common and shared vision of
the greater good.
Constitutional theories those which explain criminality by reference to
offenders’ body types, inheritance, genetics, and/or external observable physical
characteristics.
Constitutive criminology the study of the process by which human beings create
an ideology of crime that sustains it (the notion of crime) as a concrete reality.
Containment those aspects of the social bond which act to prevent individuals
from committing crimes and keep them from engaging in deviance.
Containment theory a form of control theory which suggests that a series of both
internal and external factors contribute to law-abiding behavior.
Control group a group of experimental subjects which, although the subject of
measurement and observation, are not exposed to the experimental intervention.
Control theory see social control theory.
Controlled experiments those which attempt to hold conditions (other than the
intentionally introduced experimental intervention) constant.
Corporate crime a violation of a criminal statute either by a corporate entity
or by its executives, employees, or agents acting on behalf of and for the benefit of the
corporation, partnership, or other form of business entity.
Correctional psychology that aspect of forensic psychology which is concerned
with the diagnosis and classification of offenders, the treatment of correctional
populations, and the rehabilitation of inmates and other law violators.
Correlation A causal, complementary, or reciprocal relationship between two
measurable variables. See also Statistical correlation.
Cosa Nostra (literally, "our thing") a term signifying organized
crime, and one of a variety of names for the "Mafia," the "Outfit,"
the "Mob," the "syndicate," or "the organization."
Crime human conduct in violation of the criminal laws of a state, the federal
government, or a local jurisdiction which has the power to make such laws.
Criminal anthropology the scientific study of the relationship between human
physical characteristics and criminality.
Criminal homicide the causing of the death of another person without legal
justification or excuse. Also, the illegal killing of one human being by another.
Criminal homicide (UCR) the name of the UCR category which includes and is
limited to all offenses of causing the death of another person without justification or
excuse.
Criminal justice the scientific study of crime, the criminal law, and components
of the criminal justice system, including the police, courts, and corrections.
Criminal justice system the various agencies of "justice," especially
police, courts, and corrections, whose goal it is to apprehend, convict, punish, and
rehabilitate law violators.
Criminal law that body of law which regulates those actions which have the
potential to harm interests of the state or the federal government.
Criminality a behavioral predisposition that disproportionately favors criminal
activity.
Criminalize to make illegal.
Criminaloids a term used by Cesare Lombroso to describe occasional criminals who
were pulled into criminality primarily by environmental influences.
Criminologist one who is trained in the field of criminology. Also, one who
studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior.
Criminology an interdisciplinary profession built around the scientific study of
crime and criminal behavior, including their form, causes, legal aspects and control.
Criminology of place. See environmental criminology.
Critical criminology. See radical criminology.
Culture conflict a sociological perspective on crime which suggests that the
root cause of criminality can be found in a clash of values between variously socialized
groups over what is acceptable or proper behavior.
Cybercrime crime committed with the use of computers, or via the manipulation of
digital forms of data. Another term for computer crime.
Cyberspace the computer-created matrix of virtual possibilities, including
on-line services, wherein human beings interact with each other and with technology
itself.
Cycloid a term developed by Ernst Kretschmer to describe a particular
relationship between body build and personality type. The cycloid personality, which was
associated with a heavy-set, soft type of body, was said to vacillate between normality
and abnormality.
DNA fingerprinting (or profiling) the use of biological residue found at
the scene of a crime for genetic comparisons in aiding the identification of criminal
suspects.
Dangerous drugs a term used by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) to
refer to "broad categories or classes of controlled substances other than cocaine,
opiates, and cannabis products." Amphetamines, methamphetamines, PCP (phencyclidine),
LSD, methcathinone, and "designer drugs" are all considered "dangerous
drugs."
Dangerousness the likelihood that a given individual will later harm society or
others. Dangerousness is often measured in terms of recidivism, or as the
likelihood of additional crime commission within a five year period following arrest or
release from confinement.
Data confidentiality an ethical requirement of social scientific research which
stipulates that research data not be shared outside of the research environment.
Data encryption the process by which information is encoded, making it
unreadable to all but its intended recipients.
Date rape unlawful forced sexual intercourse with a female against her will
which occurs within the context of a dating relationship
Daubert standard a test of scientific acceptability applicable to the
gathering of evidence in criminal cases.
Deconstructionist theories emerging approaches which challenge existing
criminological perspectives to debunk them, and which work toward replacing them with
concepts more applicable to the postmodern era. Deconstructionist theories are generally
postmodernist approaches, none of which have yet developed fully enough to actually
deserve the name "theory."
Decriminalization (of drugs) reduces criminal penalties associated with the
personal possession of a controlled substance.
Defensible space the range of mechanisms that combine to bring an environment
under the control of its residents.
Demography the study of the characteristics of population groups (demographics
the characteristics of such groups usually expressed in statistical fashion).
Designer drugs "new substances designed by slightly altering the chemical
makeup of other illegal or tightly controlled drugs."
Descriptive statistics describe, summarize, or highlight the relationships
within data which have been gathered.
Deterrence the prevention of crime. See also general deterrence and specific
deterrence.
Deterrence strategy a crime control strategy which attempts "to diminish
motivation for crime by increasing the perceived certainty, severity, or celerity of
penalties."
Deviance behavior which violates social norms or which is statistically
different from the "average."
Differential association the sociological thesis that criminality, like any
other form of behavior, is learned through a process of association with others who
communicate criminal values.
Discrediting information information which is inconsistent with the managed
impressions being communicated in a given situation.
Displacement a shift of criminal activity from one spatial location to another.
Dramaturgical perspective (also dramaturgy) a theoretical point of view
which depicts human behavior as centered around the purposeful management of interpersonal
impressions.
Drug-defined crimes violations of laws prohibiting or regulating the possession,
use, or distribution of illegal drugs.
Drug-related crimes crimes in which drugs contribute to the offense (excluding
violations of drug laws).
Drug trafficking. See trafficking.
Durham rule a standard for judging legal insanity which holds that "an
accused is not criminally responsible if his unlawful act was the product of mental
disease or mental defect."
Ecological theory, also commonly called the "Chicago School" of
criminology, is a type of sociological approach which emphasizes demographics (the
characteristics of population groups) and geographics (the mapped location of such groups
relative to one another) and sees the social disorganization which characterizes
delinquency areas as a major cause of criminality and victimization.
Ectomorph a body type originally described as thin and fragile, with long,
slender, poorly muscled extremities, and delicate bones.
Ego the reality-testing part of the personality; also referred to as the reality
principle. More formally, the personality component that is conscious, most immediately
controls behavior, and is most in touch with external reality.
Electroencephalogram (EEG) electrical measurements of brain wave activity.
Encryption. See Data encryption.
Endomorph a body type originally described as soft and round, or overweight.
Enlightenment (the), also known as the Age of Reason. A social movement which
arose during the 18th century, and built upon ideas such as empiricism, rationality, free
will, humanism, and natural law.
Environmental crimes violations of the criminal law which, although typically
committed by businesses or by business officials, may also be committed by other persons
or organizational entities, and which damage some protected or otherwise significant
aspect of the natural environment.
Environmental criminology an emerging perspective which emphasizes the
importance of geographic location and architectural features as they are associated with
the prevalence of criminal victimization. (Note: as the term has been understood to date,
environmental criminology is not the study of environmental crime, but rather a
perspective which stresses how crime varies from place to place.)
Environmental scanning "a systematic effort to identify in an elemental way
future developments (trends or events) that could plausibly occur over the time horizon of
interest," and that might impact one’s area of concern.
Ethnic succession the continuing process whereby one immigrant or ethnic group
succeeds another through assumption of a particular position in society.
Eugenics the study of hereditary improvement by genetic control.
Evolutionary ecology an approach to understanding
crime that draws attention to the ways people develop over the course of their lives.
Experiment. See controlled experiments or quasi-experimental
design.
Expert systems computer hardware and software which attempt to duplicate the
decision-making processes used by skilled investigators in the analysis of evidence and in
the recognition of patterns which such evidence might represent.
External validity the ability to generalize research findings to other settings.
Federal interest computers those that are the property of the federal
government, those that belong to financial institutions, or are accessed across state
lines without authorization.
Felony a serious criminal offense; specifically one punishable by death or by
incarceration in a prison facility for a year or more.
Felony murder a special class of criminal homicide whereby an offender may be
charged with first-degree murder whenever his or her criminal activity results in another
person’s death.
Feminist criminology a developing intellectual approach which emphasizes gender
issues in the subject matter of criminology.
First degree murder criminal homicide which is planned or involves
premeditation.
Focal concerns the key values of any culture, and especially the key values of a
delinquent subculture.
Folkways are time-honored ways of doing things. While they carry the force of
tradition, their violation is unlikely to threaten the survival of the group. See also mores.
Forcible rape as defined in the UCR Program, is the carnal knowledge of a female
forcibly and against her will. Assaults or attempts to commit rape by force or threat of
force are also included in the UCR definition; however, statutory rape (without force) and
other sex offenses are excluded.
Forensic psychiatry that branch of psychiatry having to do with the study of
crime and criminality.
Forfeiture. See Asset forfeiture.
Frustration-aggression theory holds that frustration, which is a natural
consequence of living, is a root cause of crime. Criminal behavior can be a form of
adaptation when it results in stress reduction.
Future criminology the study of likely futures as they impinge on crime and its
control.
Futures research "a multidisciplinary branch of operations research"
whose principle aim "is to facilitate long-range planning based on 1. forecasting
from the past supported by mathematical models; 2. cross-disciplinary treatment of its
subject matter; 3. systematic use of expert judgment, and; 4. a systems-analytical
approach to its problems."
Futurist one who studies the future.
General deterrence a goal of criminal sentencing which seeks to prevent others
from committing crimes similar to the one for which a particular offender is being
sentenced.
General theory one which attempts to explain all (or at least most) forms of
criminal conduct through a single, overarching approach.
Guilty but mentally ill (GBMI) a finding that an offender is guilty of the
criminal offense with which they are charged but, because of their prevailing mental
condition, they are generally sent to psychiatric hospitals for treatment rather than to
prison. Once they have been declared "cured," however, such offenders can be
transferred to correctional facilities to serve out their sentences.
Habitual offender statutes laws intended to keep repeat criminal offenders
behind bars. These laws sometimes come under the rubric of "three strikes and
you’re out."
Hacker a person who views and uses computers as objects for exploration and
exploitation.
Hedonistic calculus or utilitarianism the belief, first proposed by
Jeremy Bentham, that behavior holds value to any individual undertaking it according to
the amount of pleasure or pain that it can be expected to produce for that person.
Heroin signature program a DEA program that identifies the geographic source
area of a heroin sample through the detection of specific chemical characteristics in the
sample peculiar to the source area.
Homicide. See Criminal homicide.
Hypoglycemia a condition characterized by low blood sugar.
Hypothesis 1. [a]n explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that can be
tested by further investigation... , 2. [s]omething that is taken to be true for the
purpose of argument or investigation.
Id the aspect of the personality from which drives, wishes, urges, and desires
emanate. More formally, the division of the psyche associated with instinctual impulses
and demands for immediate satisfaction of primitive needs.
Illegitimate opportunity structures subcultural pathways to success which are
disapproved of by the wider society.
Impression management the intentional enactment of practiced behavior which is
intended to convey to others one’s desirable personal characteristics and social
qualities.
Incapacitation the use of imprisonment or other means to reduce the likelihood
that an offender will be capable of committing future offenses.
Individual rights advocates those who seek to protect personal freedoms in the
face of criminal prosecution.
Inferential statistics specify how likely findings are to be true for other
populations, or in other locales.
Informed consent an ethical requirement of social scientific research which
specifies that research subjects will be informed as to the nature of the research about
to be conducted, their anticipated role in it, and the uses to which the data they provide
will be put.
Insanity (law) a legally established inability to understand right from
wrong, or to conform one’s behavior to the requirements of the law.
Insanity (psychological) persistent mental disorder or derangement.
Integrated theory an explanatory perspective that merges (or attempts to merge)
concepts drawn from different sources.
Interactionist perspectives. See social process theories.
Interdiction an international drug control policy which aims to stop drugs from
entering the country illegally.
Internal validity the certainty that experimental interventions did indeed cause
the changes observed in the study group; also the control over confounding factors which
tend to invalidate the results of an experiment.
Internet (the) the world’s largest computer network.
Intersubjectivity a scientific principle which requires that independent
observers see the same thing under the same circumstances for observations to be regarded
as valid.
Irresistible impulse test a standard for judging legal insanity which holds that
a defendant is not guilty of a criminal offense if the person, by virtue of their mental
state or psychological condition, was not able to resist committing the action in
question.
Juke family a well-known "criminal family" studied by Richard L.
Dugdale.
Just deserts the notion that criminal offenders deserve the punishment they
receive at the hands of the law, and that punishments should be appropriate to the type
and severity of crime committed.
Kallikak family a well known "criminal family" studied by Henry
H. Goddard.
Kriminalpolitik the political handling of crime, or a criminology-based
social policy.
Labeling an interactionist perspective which sees continued crime as a
consequence of limited opportunities for acceptable behavior which follow from the
negative responses of society to those defined as offenders.
Larceny the unlawful taking or attempted taking of property other than a motor
vehicle from the possession of another, by stealth, without force and without deceit, with
intent to permanently deprive the owner of the property.
Larceny-theft (UCR) the unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away by
stealth of property, other than a motor vehicle, from the possession or constructive
possession of another, including attempts.
Law and order advocates those who suggest that, under certain circumstances
involving criminal threats to public safety, the interests of society should take
precedence over individual rights.
LEAA an acronym for the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, which
was established under Title I of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1967.
Learning theory the general notion that crime is an acquired form of behavior.
Legalization (of drugs) eliminates the laws and associated criminal penalties
that prohibit the production, sale, distribution, and possession of a controlled
substance.
Life course theories explanations for criminality that recognize that
criminogenic influences have their greatest impact during the early stages of life, and
which hold that experiences which children have shape them for the rest of their lives.
Life-style theory. See routine activities theory.
McNaughten (or M'Naughten) rule a standard for judging legal insanity which
requires that either an offender did not know what he or she were doing, or that, if he or
she did, that he or she did not know it was wrong.
Mafia. See Cosa Nostra.
Mala in se acts which are thought to be wrong in and of themselves.
Mala prohibita acts which are wrong only because society says they are.
Marxist criminology. See radical criminology.
Mass murder the illegal killing of four or more victims at one location, within
one event.
Mesomorph a body type described as athletic and muscular.
Meta-analysis a study of other studies about a particular topic of interest.
Misdemeanor a criminal offense which is less serious than a felony. One
punishable by incarceration, usually in a local confinement facility, typically for a year
or less.
Money laundering the process of converting illegally earned assets, originating
as cash, to one or more alternative forms to conceal such incriminating factors as illegal
origin and true ownership.
Monozyotic (or MZ) twins, as opposed to dizygotic (or DZ) twins,
develop from the same egg, and carry virtually the same genetic material.
Moral enterprise a term which encompasses all the efforts a particular interest
group makes to have its sense of propriety enacted into law.
Mores are behavioral proscriptions covering potentially serious violations of a
group’s values, and would probably include strictures against murder, rape, and
robbery. See also folkways.
Motor vehicle theft (UCR) the theft or attempted theft of a motor
vehicle. This offense category includes the stealing of automobiles, trucks, buses,
motorcycles, motorscooters, snowmobiles, and so on.
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) conducted annually by the Bureau of
Justice Statistics (BJS) and provides data on surveyed households which report they were
affected by crime.
Natural law the philosophical perspective that certain immutable laws are
fundamental to human nature and can be readily ascertained through reason. Man-made laws,
in contrast, are said to derive from human experience and history—both of which are
subject to continual change.
Natural rights the rights which, according to natural law theorists, individuals
retain in the face of government action and interests.
Negligent homicide (UCR) in Uniform Crime Reports terminology, causing death of
another by recklessness or gross negligence.
Neoclassical criminology a contemporary version of Classical criminology which
emphasizes deterrence and retribution with reduced emphasis on rehabilitation.
Neurosis functional disorders of the mind or of the emotions involving anxiety,
phobia, or other abnormal behavior.
NIBRS the National Incident-Based Reporting System, a new form of the UCR
that will collect data on each single incident and arrest within twenty-two crime
categories.
Nurturant strategy a crime control strategy which attempts "to forestall
development of criminality by improving early life experiences and channeling child and
adolescent development" into desirable
directions.
Occupational crime any act punishable by law which is committed through
opportunity created in the course of an occupation that is legal.
Offense (1) a violation of the criminal law, or, in some jurisdictions, (2) a
minor crime, such as jaywalking, sometimes described as "ticketable."
OJJDP the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Omerta the informal, unwritten code of organized crime which demands
silence and loyalty, among other things, of family members.
Operant behavior behavior which affects the environment in such a way as to
produce responses or further behavioral cues.
Operationalization the process by which concepts are made measurable.
Opportunity structure a path to success. Opportunity structures may be of two
types: legitimate and illegitimate.
Organized crime the unlawful activities of the members of a highly organized,
disciplined association engaged in supplying illegal goods and services, including but not
limited to gambling, prostitution, loansharking, narcotics, labor racketeering, and other
unlawful activities of members of such organizations.
Panopticon a prison designed by Jeremy Bentham which was to be a circular
building with cells along the circumference, each clearly visible from a central location
staffed by guards.
Paradigm an example, model, or theory.
Paranoid schizophrenics schizophrenic individuals who suffer from delusions and
hallucinations.
Part I offenses that group of offenses, also called "major offenses"
or "index offenses," for which the UCR publishes counts of reported instances,
and which consist of murder, rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, auto
theft, and arson.
Participant observation a variety of strategies in data gathering in which the
researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the
group.
Participatory justice a relatively informal type of criminal justice case
processing which makes use of local community resources rather than requiring traditional
forms of official intervention.
Peace model an approach to crime control which focuses on effective ways for
developing a shared consensus on critical issues which have the potential to seriously
affect the quality of life.
Peacemaking criminology a perspective which holds that crime-control agencies
and the citizens they serve should work together to alleviate social problems and human
suffering and thus reduce crime.
Penal couple a term which describes the relationship between victim and
criminal. Also, the two individuals most involved in the criminal act—the offender
and the victim.
Pharmaceutical diversion the process by which legitimately-manufactured
controlled substances are diverted for illicit use.
Phenomenological criminology the study of crime as a social phenomenon
that is created through a process of social interaction.
Phenomenology the study of the contents of human consciousness without regard to
external conventions nor prior assumptions.
Phrenology the study of the shape of the head to determine anatomical correlates
of human behavior.
Phone phreak a person who uses switched, dialed-access telephone services as
objects for exploration and exploitation.
Piracy. See software piracy.
Pluralistic perspective an analytical approach to social organization which
holds that a multiplicity of values and beliefs exist in any complex society, but that
most social actors agree on the usefulness of law as a formal means of dispute resolution.
Positivism the application of scientific techniques to the study of crime and
criminals.
Post-crime victimization or secondary victimization refers to problems in
living which tend to follow from initial victimization.
Postmodern criminology a brand of criminology which developed following World
War II, and which builds upon the tenants inherent in postmodern social thought.
Power-control theory a perspective which holds that the distribution of crime
and delinquency within society is to some degree founded upon the consequences which power
relationships within the wider society hold for domestic settings, and for the everyday
relationships between men, women, and children within the context of family life.
Primary deviance initial deviance often undertaken to deal with transient
problems in living.
Primary research research characterized by original and direct investigation.
Proletariat in Marxian theory, the working class.
Protection/avoidance strategy a crime control strategy which attempts to reduce
criminal opportunities by changing people’s routine activities, increasing
guardianship, or by incapacitating convicted offenders.
Psychiatric criminology. See forensic psychiatry.
Psychiatric theories those derived from the medical sciences, including
neurology, and which, like other psychological theories, focus on the individual as the
unit of analysis.
Psychoactive substances those which affect the mind, mental processes, or
emotions.
Psychoanalysis the theory of human psychology founded by Freud on the concepts
of the unconscious, resistance, repression, sexuality, and the Oedipus complex.
Psychoanalytic criminology is a psychiatric approach developed by the Austrian
psychiatrist Sigmund Freud which emphasizes the role of personality in human behavior, and
which sees deviant behavior as the result of dysfunctional personalities.
Psychological profiling the attempt to categorize, understand, and predict, the
behavior of certain types of offenders based upon behavioral clues they provide.
Psychological theories those derived from the behavioral sciences and which
focus on the individual as the unit of analysis. Psychological theories place the locus of
crime causation within the personality of the individual offender.
Psychopath or sociopath a person with a personality disorder, especially
one manifested in aggressively antisocial behavior, which is often said to be the result
of a poorly developed superego.
Psychopathology the study of pathological mental conditions, that is, mental
illness.
Psychosis a form of mental illness in which sufferers are said to be out of
touch with reality.
Psychotherapy a form of psychiatric treatment based upon psychoanalytical
principles and techniques.
Public policy a course of action that government takes in an effort to solve a
problem or to achieve an end.
Punishment undesirable behavioral consequences likely to decrease the frequency
of occurrence of that behavior.
Pure research research undertaken simply for the sake of advancing scientific
knowledge.
Qualitative methods research techniques which produce results which are
difficult to quantify.
Quantitative methods research techniques which produce measurable
results.
Quasi-experimental designs approaches to research which, although less
powerful than experimental designs, are deemed worthy of use where better designs are not
feasible.
Radical criminology a perspective which holds that the causes of crime are
rooted in social conditions which empower the wealthy and the politically well organized,
but disenfranchise those less fortunate. Also called Marxist or critical
criminology.
Randomization the process whereby individuals are assigned to study groups
without biases or differences resulting from selection.
Rape (NCVS) carnal knowledge through the use of force or the threat of force,
including attempts. Statutory rape (without force) is excluded. Both heterosexual and
homosexual rape are included.
Rape (UCR). See Forcible rape.
Rational choice theory a perspective which holds that criminality is the result of
conscious choice, and which predicts that individuals choose to commit crime when the
benefits outweigh the costs of disobeying the law.
Reaction formation the process in which a person openly rejects that which he or
she wants, or aspires to, but cannot obtain or achieve.
Realist criminology an emerging perspective which insists upon a pragmatic
assessment of crime and associated problems.
Recidivism the repetition of criminal behavior.
Recidivism rate the percentage of convicted offenders who have been released
from prison and who are later rearrested for a new crime, generally within five years
following release.
Reintegrative shaming that form of shaming, imposed as a sanction by the
criminal justice system, that is thought to strengthen the moral bond between the offender
and the community.
Replicability (experimental) a scientific principle which holds that the same
observations made at one time can be had again at a later time if all other conditions are
the same.
Research the use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for
knowledge.
Research design the logic and structure inherent in an approach to
data-gathering.
Restitution a criminal sanction, in particular the payment of compensation by
the offender to the victim.
Restorative justice a postmodern perspective which stresses "remedies and
restoration rather than prison, punishment and victim neglect."
Retribution the act of taking revenge upon a criminal perpetrator.
Reward desirable behavioral consequences likely to increase the frequency of
occurrence of that behavior.
RICO an acronym for the "Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt
Organization" statute, which was part of the federal Organized Crime Control Act of
1970.
Robbery (UCR) the unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is in the
immediate possession of another by force or threat of force or violence and/or by putting
the victim in fear.
Routine activities theory (or life-style theory) a brand of rational
choice theory which suggests that life-styles contribute significantly to both the volume
and type of crime found in any society.
Scenario writing a technique intended to predict future outcomes, and which
builds upon environmental scanning by attempting to assess the likelihood of a variety of
possible outcomes once important trends have been identified.
Schizophrenics mentally ill individuals who suffer from disjointed thinking and,
possibly, delusions and hallucinations.
Second-degree murder criminal homicide which is unplanned, and which is often
described as a "crime of passion."
Secondary analysis the reanalysis of existing data.
Secondary deviance that which results from official labeling and from
association with others who have been so labeled.
Secondary research new evaluations of existing information which has already
been collected by other researchers.
Selective incapacitation a social policy which seeks to protect society by
incarcerating those individuals deemed to be the most dangerous.
Serial murder criminal homicide which involves the killing of several victims in
three or more separate events.
Simple assault (NCVS) an attack without a weapon resulting either in minor
injury or in undetermined injury requiring less than two days of hospitalization.
Situational choice theory a brand of rational choice theory which views criminal
behavior "as a function of choices and decisions made within a context of situational
constraints and opportunities."
Situational crime prevention a social policy approach that looks to develop
greater understanding of crime and more effective crime prevention strategies through
concern with the physical, organizational, and social environments that make crime
possible.
Social bond the rather intangible link between individuals and the society of
which they are a part. The social bond is created through the process of socialization.
Social capital the degree of positive relationships with other persons and with
social institutions, that individuals build up over the course of their lives.
Social class distinctions made between individuals on the basis of important
defining social characteristics.
Social contract the Enlightenment-era concept that human beings abandon their
natural state of individual freedom to join together and form society. Although, in the
process of forming a social contract, individuals surrender some freedoms to society as a
whole, government, once formed, is obligated to assume responsibilities toward its
citizens and to provide for their protection and welfare.
Social control theory a perspective which predicts that when social constraints
on antisocial behavior are weakened or absent, delinquent behavior emerges. Rather than
stressing causative factors in criminal behavior, control theory asks why people actually
obey rules instead of breaking them.
Social disorganization a condition said to exist when a group is faced with
social change, uneven development of culture, maladaptiveness, disharmony, conflict, and
lack of consensus.
Social ecology an approach to criminological theorizing that attempts to link
the structure and organization of human community to interactions with its localized
environment.
Social epidemiology the study of social epidemics and diseases of the social
order.
Social learning theory a psychological perspective that says people learn how to
behave by modeling themselves after others whom they have the opportunity to observe.
Social pathology a concept which compares society to a physical organism and
sees criminality as an illness.
Social policies government initiatives, programs, and plans intended to address
problems in society. The "War on Crime," for example, is a kind of generic
(large-scale) social policy—one consisting of many smaller programs.
Social problems perspective the belief that crime is a manifestation of
underlying social problems, such as poverty, discrimination, pervasive family violence,
inadequate socialization practices, and the breakdown of traditional social institutions.
Social process theories, also known as interactionist perspectives,
emphasize the give-and-take which occurs between offender, victim, and society—and
specifically between the offender and agents of formal social control such as the police,
courts, and correctional organizations.
Social relativity the notion that social events are differently interpreted
according to the cultural experiences and personal interests of the initiator, the
observer, or the recipient of that behavior.
Social responsibility perspective a viewpoint which holds that individuals are
fundamentally responsible for their own behavior, and which maintains that they choose
crime over other, more law-abiding, courses of action.
Social-structural theories explain crime by reference to various aspects of the
social fabric. They emphasize relationships between social institutions, and describe the
types of behavior which tend to characterize groups of people as opposed to individuals.
Social structure the pattern of social organization and the interrelationships
between institutions characteristic of a society.
Socialization the lifelong process of social experience whereby individuals
acquire the cultural patterns of their society.
Sociobiology "the systematic study of the biological basis of all social
behavior."
Sociopath. See psychopath.
Software piracy the unauthorized and illegal copying of software programs.
Somatotyping the classification of human beings into types according to body
build and other physical characteristics.
Specific deterrence a goal of criminal sentencing which seeks to prevent a
particular offender from engaging in repeat criminality.
State-organized crime acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state
officials in the pursuit of their job as representatives of the state.
Statistical correlation the simultaneous increase or decrease in value of two
numerically valued random variables.
Statistical school a criminological perspective with roots in the early 1800s
which seeks to uncover correlations between crime rates and other types of demographic
data.
Statute a formal written enactment of a legislative body.
Statutory law law in the form of statutes or formal written strictures, made by
a legislature or governing body with the power to make law.
Stigmatic shaming. that form of shaming, imposed as a sanction by the criminal
justice system, that is thought to destroy the moral bond between the offender and the
community.
Strain theory or anomie theory a sociological approach which
posits a disjuncture between socially and subculturally sanctioned means and goals as the
cause of criminal behavior.
Strategic assessment a technique which assesses the risks and opportunities
facing those who plan for the future.
Subcultural theory a sociological perspective which emphasizes the contribution
made by variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime.
Subculture a collection of values and preferences which is communicated to
subcultural participants through a process of socialization.
Sublimation the psychological process whereby one aspect of consciousness comes
to be symbolically substituted for another.
Substantial capacity test a standard for judging legal insanity which requires
that a person lack "the mental capacity needed to understand the wrongfulness of his
act, or to conform his behavior to the requirements of the law."
Superego the moral aspect of the personality; much like the conscience. More
formally, the division of the psyche that develops by the incorporation of the perceived
moral standards of the community, is mainly unconscious, and includes the conscience.
Supermale a human male displaying the XYY chromosome structure.
Superpredators a new generation of juveniles "who are coming of age in
actual and ‘moral poverty’ without the benefits of parents, teachers, coaches
and clergy to teach them right from wrong and show them 'unconditional love.’"
The term is often applied to those inner-city youths who meet the criteria it sets forth.
Survey research a social science data-gathering technique which involves the use
of questionnaires.
Tagging like labeling, the process whereby an individual is negatively defined
by agencies of justice.
Target hardening the reduction in criminal opportunity, generally through the
use of physical barriers, architectural design, and enhanced security measures, of a
particular location.
Techniques of neutralization culturally available justifications which can
provide criminal offenders with the means to disavow responsibility for their behavior.
TEMPEST a standard developed by the U.S. government that requires that
electromagnetic emanations from computers designated as "secure" be below levels
that would allow radio receiving equipment to "read" the data being computed.
Terrorism a violent act or an act dangerous to human life in violation of the
criminal laws of the United States or of any state to intimidate or coerce a government,
the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social
objectives.
Testosterone the primary male sex hormone, produced in the testes and
functioning to control secondary sex characteristics and sexual drive.
Tests of significance statistical techniques intended to provide researchers
with confidence that their results are in fact true, and not the result of sampling error.
Thanatos a death wish.
Theory a series of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain,
predict, and ultimately to control some class of events. A theory gains explanatory power
from inherent logical consistency, and is "tested" by how well it describes and
predicts reality.
Threat analysis or risk analysis involves a complete and thorough
assessment of the kinds of perils facing an organization.
Three-strikes a provision of some criminal statutes which mandates life
imprisonment for criminals convicted of three violent felonies or serious drug offenses.
Total institutions facilities from which individuals can rarely come and go, and
in which communal life is intense and circumscribed. Individuals in total institutions
tend to eat, sleep, play, learn, and worship (if at all) together.
Trafficking includes manufacturing, distributing, dispensing, importing, and
exporting (or possession with intent to do the same) a controlled substance or a
counterfeit substance.
Trephination a form of surgery, typically involving bone and especially the
skull. Early instances of cranial trephination have been taken as evidence for primitive
beliefs in spirit possession.
Twelve Tables early Roman laws written around 450 B.C. which regulated family,
religious and economic life.
Uni-causal having one cause. Theories which are uni-causal posit only one source
for all that they attempt to explain.
Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) a summation of crime statistics tallied annually by
the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and consisting primarily of data on crimes
reported to the police and of arrests.
Utilitarianism. See hedonistic calculus.
Variable a concept which can undergo measurable changes.
Verstehen the kind of subjective understanding that can be achieved by
criminologists who immerse themselves into the everyday world of the criminals they study.
Victim impact statement a written document which describes the losses,
suffering, and trauma experienced by the crime victim or by the victim’s survivors.
In jurisdictions where victim impact statements are used, judges are expected to consider
them in arriving at an appropriate sentence for the offender.
Victim-precipitated homicides killings in which the "victim" was the
first to commence the interaction or was the first to resort to physical violence.
Victim-proneness the degree of an individual’s likelihood of victimization.
Victim-witness assistance programs counsel victims, orient them to the justice
process, and provide a variety of other services such as transportation to court, child
care during court appearances, and referrals to social service agencies.
Victimization rate (NCVS) a measure of the occurrence of victimizations among a
specified population group. For personal crimes, this is based on the number of
victimizations per 1,000 residents age 12 or older. For household crimes, the
victimization rates are calculated using the number of incidents per 1,000 households.
Victimogenesis the contributory background of a victim as a result of which he
or she becomes prone to victimization.
Victimology the study of victims and their contributory role, if any, in crime
causation.
Virus (computer) a set of computer instructions that propagates copies or
versions of itself into computer programs or data when it is executed.
VOCA the Victims of Crime Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1984.
White-collar crime violations of the criminal law committed by a person of
respectability and high social status in the course of his or her occupation.
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